TimeMaps

Middle East
2500BC

The influence of Mesopotamian civilization has spread far and wide, carried by the trade networks radiating outwards from the Sumerian cities. Towns and cities are now scattered over a large part of the Middle East, and well beyond.

The second great civilization of the ancient world is now well established. Situated in the Nile valley, Egypt has already produced some of the most famous structures in all history, the great Pyramids of Giza.

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Middle East
1500BC

The past thousand years have seen many upheavals in the Middle East, particularly in Mesopotamia and surrounding regions. Tribes from the fringes of the old civilizations have come in to create new states and empires: the Hittite, Mitanni and Babylonian empires are ruled by Indo-European speakers from the north and east. These states are joined by the New Kingdom of Egypt to form the leading powers of the region.

These centralized states are home to highly sophisticated - and already ancient - civilizations, with a complex commercial life, bureaucracies, and well-organized armies based on a new technology, the chariot. The struggles between them dominate the history of the Middle Eastern world at this period.

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Middle East
1000BC

Great changes have wracked the Middle East over the past five centuries. The old powers of the ancient Middle East - Egypt, the Hittites, Assyria and Babylon - have all been devastated by invaders from outside their borders. The eclipse of these states has allowed new peoples, particularly the Phoenicians and Israelites, to come to the fore. Their achievements will have an enduring impact on world history.

Three major advances in civilization have taken place in recent centuries. Firstly, iron has come into widespread use, probably starting somewhere in Asia Minor. Secondly, the alphabet has been developed, again probably in Asia Minor but soon to be spread by Phoenician merchants around the Mediterranean and Middle East. A third occurrence of world significance is the appearance of the monotheism, carried into history by the Israelite tribes.

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Middle East
500BC

The history of the Middle East over the past 500 years or so has been one of imperial powers following one another in succession: first the Assyrians, then the Babylonians and Medians, and now the Persian empire, the largest state in the history of the Ancient World. This now covers the entire region and beyond.

This succession of great empires – and the policy that the Assyrians and Babylonians pursued of re-settling conquered peoples in scattered groups throughout their territories - has resulted in the upheaval of populations on a vast scale. As a result, old languages have vanished and Aramaean has become the lingua-franca of the region. With its simple-to-learn alphabet, this has greatly stimulated international trade and inter-regional communications. Middle Eastern civilization, by now three millennia old in its Mesopotamian heartland, has reached new heights. 

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Middle East
200BC

The huge Persian empire was conquered in a series of brilliant campaigns by the young Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia, between 333 and 323 BC. These campaigns involved armies largely recruited from amongst the city-states of Greece.

Alexander’s empire failed to survive his early death, and his generals, together with some local princes, divided his conquests amongst themselves. These rulers and their descendants have founded numerous Greek-style cities, which can now be found scattered across the Middle Eastern world as far as India, and from which the ruling classes of these kingdoms are drawn. In them, Greek cultural traditions mix with more ancient native elements to form a fascinating hybrid civilization which modern scholars label "Hellenistic". It is at this time that some of the most spectacular "Greek" artistic and intellectual achievements occur.

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Middle East
30BC

The Middle East is divided between two major powers, Rome to the west and Parthia to the east. This political division will characterize the history of the region for several centuries.

The social and cultural division is not so sharp, however. Greek civilization has left its mark on Mesopotamia and other parts of the Middle Eastern world, as a powerful ingredient in a mix containing more ancient cultures. Greek-style (or "Hellenistic") cities thrive under both the Romans and the Parthians, and in both empires art and architecture continue to be deeply effected by Greek influences.

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Middle East
200AD

The Middle East continues to be divided between the hostile empires of Rome and Parthia, with the kingdom of Armenia acting as a buffer between the two, regularly fought over. The Roman empire normally has the better of the fighting, and has launched two major invasions which have penetrated deep into the heartland of the Parthian empire. This situation will soon change, however, as a new, more effective regime comes to power in Iran.

One small part of the Middle East, Judaea, has seen dramatic developments. Firstly, it witnessed the life, death and (according to his disciples) resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. Shortly, the new religion of Christianity was spreading widely in the region, and well beyond.

Secondly, Judaea was the scene of two great rebellions against the Roman empire (AD 66-71 and AD 132-36) which ended in the complete destruction of the Jewish holy city of Jerusalem (and its rebuilding as a Roman colony), and the dispersal of the Jewish people from their homeland.

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Middle East
500AD

The Middle East remains divided between the two superpowers of the region, the Roman empire in the west (now ruled from Constantinople) and the Persian empire in the east. The Persian empire has been ruled by the Sassanian dynasty since the early Third century, and they have proved more aggressive and formidable opponents of the Romans than their Parthian predecessors. 

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Middle East
750AD

During the 7^th century the Middle East experienced one of the most dramatic upheavals in the entire history of the world. Arab tribes, motivated by a new religion, Islam, first united the whole Arabian peninsula under the rule of their Prophet, Muhammad, and his successors, and then swept outwards in a surge of conquest which took their armies as far afield as India in the east and Spain in the west. The great Persian empire vanished entirely under the onslaught, and the Byzantine empire lost its most valuable provinces. In their place, the Arabs established a vast empire, ruled from Damascus, in Syria.

Although now politically the ruling power in the Middle East and well beyond, the Muslim caliphate (so called because it is ruled by the "caliphs", meaning successors of the Prophet) has not imposed the religion of Islam on the subject populations. These by and large remain loyal to their earlier faiths, mainly different branches of Christianity, Judaism or Zoroastrianism. Outside Arabia, it is only in certain strategic centres of Muslim power that Islam is the majority religion.

Middle East
979AD

The replacement of Damascus by Baghdad as the capital of the Caliphate in 752 shifted the centre of gravity of the Muslim world eastward. Shortly after this the empire began to break up, with Spain, the Maghrib, Egypt, Syria, and much of Iran falling away from Baghdad’s control. By this date, indeed, the caliphs have ceased to exercise much personal power even in Baghdad, after the Buyids, a group of tribesmen from northern Iran, captured the city in 945.

As a result of these developments, the office of caliph has gradually taken on a symbolic rather than political role, acting as a focus for Muslim loyalty and legitimacy (most Muslim rulers call themselves emir, or governor, and, while acting as independent princes, emphasize their loyalty to the caliph).

The Muslim world is home to a flourishing cultural life. Technological and scientific developments come in from China (paper) and India (decimal system), and, mixing with Greek thought and Arabic contributions (e.g. algebra), create a body of knowledge which would be passed onto Europeans and there form the basis for further advance.

Middle East
1215AD

In the 11^th century most of the Middle East fell to the Seljuqs, Muslim Turks from central Asia. They ruled their conquests in the name of the caliph, who was by now little more than a figurehead. The Seljuqs' empire soon began to break up, however, and its decline paved the way for the rise of regional states, mostly ruled by dynasties of Turkish origin.

By now, the majority of the population in the Middle East is Muslim. In the eastern parts, the replacement of native (non- or nominal-Muslim) elites by alien (but passionately Islamic) Turks has encouraged the population to look to local Muslim leaders for protection, and this has encouraged the spread of Islam here. In the western parts, especially in Syria and Palestine, the invasion of alien Christian Crusaders onto their soil has led local people to convert en masse to Islam.

Despite political disunity, the Islamic world remains unified in many important ways. The Arabic and Persian languages are the international mediums of religion, government, culture and commerce. Scholars and teachers travel freely throughout the Muslim world to study and teach, giving this vast area an impressive cultural unity. And the annual pilgrimage to Mecca gives all who participate in it an enormous sense of solidarity with other Muslims, wherever they come from.

Middle East
1453AD

The Middle East fell to the Mongols from central Asia in the 1230s, 40s and 50s. They captured Baghdad in 1258 and killed the last of the caliphs. They were only stopped by the Mamluq Turks, a group of slave-soldiers who went on to seize control of Egypt and Syria and oust the remaining Crusaders from their toe-holds on the Levant coast. Mamluq armies used firearms, first introduced into the region by the Mongols.

When the vast Mongol empire was divided amongst the descendants of Ghengis Khan, the Middle East fell to a branch which became known as the Il-khans. These converted to Islam and became typical Muslim rulers. Like all previous dynasties, their power too fell into decline and the usual fragmentation set in. In the 1340s the region was struck by the Black Death. In the late 14^th century another conqueror from central Asia, Timur, became master of most of the Middle East, with the major exception of Egypt and Syria, still under the Mamluqs.
 
When Timur died, his empire soon also declined. Iraq has fallen to another group from central Asia, the Black Sheep Turks. Meanwhile, Asia Minor has now come under the Ottoman empire. In this year, 1453, the Ottomans capture the great Byzantine capital of Constantinople.

Middle East
1648AD

Most of the Middle East has come under the rule of two major powers. The Ottoman empire conquered Syria in 1516,  Egypt in 1517, eastern Arabia (the Hejaz and Yemen) in the following years, and Iraq in 1534. The Ottomans have brought much needed peace and stability to these countries, and a measure of economic progress. To the east has arisen the other major Middle Eastern power, Safavid Iran. Under the Safavids, Iran has experienced a period of cultural achievement, particularly in architecture.

Middle East
1789AD

The huge Ottoman empire has been coming under increasing pressure from the European powers of Austria and Russia. Internally, Ottoman rule has been weakened by the rise of provincial leaders who exercise a great deal of independence from the sultan's government.

Luckily for the Ottomans, Iran has experienced a much steeper decline. The Safavid dynasty has fallen from power, and Iranian governments have become increasingly unstable. Through all this, however, the Shi'ite branch of Islam has been strengthening its hold on the country.

Middle East
1837AD

The Ottoman empire has continued to lose territory; above all, it has effectively lost control of Egypt. However, on the verge of seemingly inevitable break-up, it takes important steps towards modernizing itself and reimposes its authority over its remaining Middle Eastern provinces. Egypt also introduces some modernization, superficially at least. Iran continues to experience weakness and decline.

Middle East
1871AD

The lands of the Ottoman empire have experienced renewed centralized rule, with the provincial elites being brought back under the authority of the sultan's government. The notable exception to this is Egypt, which is now essentially an independent country. In Iran, weak government and social stagnation continue.

Throughout the Middle East, European (especially British and French) influence is increasingly apparent. This is especially the case with the opening of the Suez canal. This has turned the region into a main thoroughfare of global trade, as well as an important link in the chains connecting the European powers with their overseas empires.

Middle East
1914AD

The Suez Canal's immense importance in linking European nations with their (by now massive) eastern interests places the Middle East right at the heart of their concerns. The British, being the predominant global power, are at the forefront in establishing their interests in the region. Egypt has now drifted under their control, and they have established strong political influence along the coast of the Arabian peninsula. Their commercial interests also now dominate Iraq and Iran. Russia has also built up its presence in Iran, and French influence predominates in Syria. In the meantime, the Ottoman empire has continued to tighten its control over its territories in Anatolia, Syria and Iraq, and is also intent on modernizing its dominions' economies. The Ottoman government seeks to balance British and French influence by developing closer ties with Germany.

Two developments which will have a great influence on the future of the region are the arrival of Jews in increasing numbers in Palestine, from the 1880's onwards, and the discovery of oil in Arabia, in 1901.

Middle East
1960AD

The Ottoman empire sided with Germany and Austria in World War 1 (1914-8), and afterwards was broken up amongst the nations of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq and Saudi Arabia. All except Turkey and Saudi Arabia were at first under British or French control. Iraq became independent in 1933. After World War 2, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt and Jordan became independent. In 1948 the British left Palestine, under fire from both Arabs and Jews. The Jews declared the independent state of Israel. Bitter fighting between Jews and Arabs followed, but Israel continued in being.

The politics of most Middle Eastern states has been autocratic, and frequently unstable. They have also been deeply affected by the Cold War, with some (Syria, Egypt) veering towards the pro-Soviet camp and others (the monarchies of the Arabian peninsula, Turkey, Iraq and Iran) towards the West. Israel, on the whole pro-West, has retained a western-style parliamentary system.

The oil industry is transforming many Middle Eastern countries, giving them hitherto undreamt of wealth.

Middle East
2005AD

For the Middle East, the last few decades have been dominated by two issues - Arab-Israeli hostility, and oil. The second of these, oil, has brought economic progress and dazzling modernity to several countries. The first has brought two full-scale wars, in 1967 and 1973, plus several bloody disturbances on - and within - Israel's borders. The issue is on-going and shows no signs of resolution.

Virtually every other major issue in the region has been touched to a greater or lesser extent by the Arab-Israel question. It has made it much harder for Muslim leaders to adopt pro-Western policies, and has given anti-Western terrorist organizations widespread support. It has made the West's attempts to safeguard its essential interests in the Middle East - especially oil, on which its very way of life depends - much more difficult. The default mode for Middle Eastern leaders and their people is distrust of the West.